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The late 17th and the early 18th centuries were a turning point in the history of the Qing Empire. After achieving control of southwest of China and Taiwan, the Qing Empire began to compete with the Zunghars for rule of Mongolia. It seemed that the future of the empire was undecided. If it could be stable and expanding, the Qing could become an 'empire' in deed as well as in name. The Kangxi emperor('s reign 1662~1722) was an important period that has interested many scholars. However most of them tend to describe him as an emperor who just tried to learn Chinese culture and the scientific accomplishments of the Jesuits.
From the perspective of new studies of Qing history, I aim to explain the Kangxi emperor's detailed plan for rule of the Empire. It was to be a Manchu-centered empire. This paper is based on Jesuit missionaries' descriptions, including those written by Joachim Bouvet, Prancois Gerbillon, Louis Le Comte and Matteo Ripa during the late 17th and the early 18th centuries.' Why were these records important? Because those were not glorified by Qing officials after military campaigns' success and the territorial expansion, but were contemporary accounted, not retrospective.
From three aspects, I could explain the blueprint for the imperial success of the Kangxi emperor.
First, he developed a new concept of the capital. Before the Kangxi reign, Beijing already had some Manchu characteristics. For example, unlike the Ming Dynasty, the city consisted of three parts: outer city, inner city, and imperial city. In the inner city, there was a Tangze shrine which was very important for the imperial family. To the prior design of Beijing, the Kangxi emperor added features consonant with his plan. Here built the Changchunyuan in the late 1680s, and often resided there. It gradually became a center of his reign. He was known for frequenting the Forbidden City, Changchunyuan and the Nanyuan. The emperor permitted his people to observe the processions to these centers as public spectacle, so that the people could remember him personally as a ruler. It was a new concept of the imperial capital, the emperor directly connected with population beyond the wall, Why did the Kangxi emperor prefer Changchunyuan to the Forbidden City? Unlike the Forbidden City, the style of building was simple, and the Manchus' temperament which the Kangxi emperor encouraged was reflected in there.
Second, the Kangxi emperor gave Manchu bannermen special treatment. Of course, he considered all bannerman(whether Manchu, Mongol, or Chinese) as an important to the Empire. Above all, the emperor took a serious view of the Manchu bannerman's situation; he canceled their debt, and gave them an advantage in bureaucratic appointments. In the Qing period, bannermen and civilians were appointed in equal portions to same positions in central government (Manhan bingyong). Its purpose was to cultivate the Manchus' administrative abilities.
Third, the Kangxi emperor actively enforced a language policy. He hoped that the Manchu language would be equal with the Chinese language. Even though the Manchus conquered China proper, they were a minority in the Empire. In addition, the Manchu writing system was derived from that of the Mongols, making it difficult for Manchu to occupy the most prestigious position among court languages. Through the Manhan bingyong policy, Manchu became a public language at the Qing court. In Kangxi's period, the Manchu dictionary was compiled, Han I araha Manchu gisun I buleku bithe, which began to explain the rules of orthography. It was indispensable to the emperor's intention to spread Manchu to the frontiers. At that time, there were many Chinese words in the Manchu language, and the emperor instructed that the dictionary should contain them. The result was enlarged vocabulary.
For the blueprint to be realized, it was necessary that the Manchus have their own identity. So, for this purpose, the Kangxi emperor selected one method as exemplary, which was the hunt. For Manchu society in general, the hunt was not important. Before they entered China proper, in Nurhaci's period, it was very important for Jianzhou Jurchen to trade with the Ming Dynasty. Even though the Manchu had the Mulan hunt, it was not very influential. The real value of the hunt was that it was important for the Kangxi emperor to demonstrate what the Manchus' essential nature was. The Mulan hunt involved very few people, it was not a suitable venue in itself. But the emperor thought that moral and spiritual qualities necessary for success in the hunt were the essential qualities of the Manchus. More than 30,000 people participated in a large scale hunt, and the emperor made himself an exemplar of Manchu virtues there. He hoped to define the Manchus' character. Moreover, young princes and bannermans' sons accompanied the emperor at the hunting field. The emperor organized the large scale hunt as an annual event. Repetitive activity could manifest the Manchus' character the Kangxi emperor hoped to root in their memory and experience.
Also, the Kangxi emperor used a hunt for another purpose, which was related to the Zunghars' attack against the Khalkhas. The Khalkhas requested that the Qing Empire protect them from Galdan. At that time, the Kangxi emperor and ministers did not decide whether to accept the Khalkha request or not. Prior to his decision, the emperor dispatched an official to investigate the situation of the Mongols. After the first expedition against the Zunghars, the Qing court decided to respond to the plea of the Khalkhas. It was necessary for the Qing court to pose a political and a culture gesture for them. So, the Kangxi emperor suggested that the Manchu and the Khalkhas shared culture similarities through the hunt. According to the 'ancient the Tartar's method', the Kangxi emperor even cut meat into thin slices and broiled it in the hunting area. The emperor intended to gain the sympathy of the Khalkhas, and of Mongols in general.
In contrast to later emperor's particularly the Qianlong emperor, the Kangxi emperor's first project was to build a Manchu-centered Empire. The hunt as an institution allowed him to address both the internal and external dimensions of this project. It is no exaggeration to say that the Qing Empire ability to expand and become long lived was based on the foundation which was established by the Kangxi emperor.
From the perspective of new studies of Qing history, I aim to explain the Kangxi emperor's detailed plan for rule of the Empire. It was to be a Manchu-centered empire. This paper is based on Jesuit missionaries' descriptions, including those written by Joachim Bouvet, Prancois Gerbillon, Louis Le Comte and Matteo Ripa during the late 17th and the early 18th centuries.' Why were these records important? Because those were not glorified by Qing officials after military campaigns' success and the territorial expansion, but were contemporary accounted, not retrospective.
From three aspects, I could explain the blueprint for the imperial success of the Kangxi emperor.
First, he developed a new concept of the capital. Before the Kangxi reign, Beijing already had some Manchu characteristics. For example, unlike the Ming Dynasty, the city consisted of three parts: outer city, inner city, and imperial city. In the inner city, there was a Tangze shrine which was very important for the imperial family. To the prior design of Beijing, the Kangxi emperor added features consonant with his plan. Here built the Changchunyuan in the late 1680s, and often resided there. It gradually became a center of his reign. He was known for frequenting the Forbidden City, Changchunyuan and the Nanyuan. The emperor permitted his people to observe the processions to these centers as public spectacle, so that the people could remember him personally as a ruler. It was a new concept of the imperial capital, the emperor directly connected with population beyond the wall, Why did the Kangxi emperor prefer Changchunyuan to the Forbidden City? Unlike the Forbidden City, the style of building was simple, and the Manchus' temperament which the Kangxi emperor encouraged was reflected in there.
Second, the Kangxi emperor gave Manchu bannermen special treatment. Of course, he considered all bannerman(whether Manchu, Mongol, or Chinese) as an important to the Empire. Above all, the emperor took a serious view of the Manchu bannerman's situation; he canceled their debt, and gave them an advantage in bureaucratic appointments. In the Qing period, bannermen and civilians were appointed in equal portions to same positions in central government (Manhan bingyong). Its purpose was to cultivate the Manchus' administrative abilities.
Third, the Kangxi emperor actively enforced a language policy. He hoped that the Manchu language would be equal with the Chinese language. Even though the Manchus conquered China proper, they were a minority in the Empire. In addition, the Manchu writing system was derived from that of the Mongols, making it difficult for Manchu to occupy the most prestigious position among court languages. Through the Manhan bingyong policy, Manchu became a public language at the Qing court. In Kangxi's period, the Manchu dictionary was compiled, Han I araha Manchu gisun I buleku bithe, which began to explain the rules of orthography. It was indispensable to the emperor's intention to spread Manchu to the frontiers. At that time, there were many Chinese words in the Manchu language, and the emperor instructed that the dictionary should contain them. The result was enlarged vocabulary.
For the blueprint to be realized, it was necessary that the Manchus have their own identity. So, for this purpose, the Kangxi emperor selected one method as exemplary, which was the hunt. For Manchu society in general, the hunt was not important. Before they entered China proper, in Nurhaci's period, it was very important for Jianzhou Jurchen to trade with the Ming Dynasty. Even though the Manchu had the Mulan hunt, it was not very influential. The real value of the hunt was that it was important for the Kangxi emperor to demonstrate what the Manchus' essential nature was. The Mulan hunt involved very few people, it was not a suitable venue in itself. But the emperor thought that moral and spiritual qualities necessary for success in the hunt were the essential qualities of the Manchus. More than 30,000 people participated in a large scale hunt, and the emperor made himself an exemplar of Manchu virtues there. He hoped to define the Manchus' character. Moreover, young princes and bannermans' sons accompanied the emperor at the hunting field. The emperor organized the large scale hunt as an annual event. Repetitive activity could manifest the Manchus' character the Kangxi emperor hoped to root in their memory and experience.
Also, the Kangxi emperor used a hunt for another purpose, which was related to the Zunghars' attack against the Khalkhas. The Khalkhas requested that the Qing Empire protect them from Galdan. At that time, the Kangxi emperor and ministers did not decide whether to accept the Khalkha request or not. Prior to his decision, the emperor dispatched an official to investigate the situation of the Mongols. After the first expedition against the Zunghars, the Qing court decided to respond to the plea of the Khalkhas. It was necessary for the Qing court to pose a political and a culture gesture for them. So, the Kangxi emperor suggested that the Manchu and the Khalkhas shared culture similarities through the hunt. According to the 'ancient the Tartar's method', the Kangxi emperor even cut meat into thin slices and broiled it in the hunting area. The emperor intended to gain the sympathy of the Khalkhas, and of Mongols in general.
In contrast to later emperor's particularly the Qianlong emperor, the Kangxi emperor's first project was to build a Manchu-centered Empire. The hunt as an institution allowed him to address both the internal and external dimensions of this project. It is no exaggeration to say that the Qing Empire ability to expand and become long lived was based on the foundation which was established by the Kangxi emperor.
목차
Ⅰ. 머리말
Ⅱ. 滿洲族 中心의 청사진
Ⅲ. 정체성 강조를 위한 전략적 선택
Ⅳ. 맺음말
〈Abstract〉
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