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This study reexamines American views of East Asia, manifested in American culture between 1853 and 1914, especially with regard to the shifting image of Japan. American interest in East Asia has been studied mainly from a Western perspective, while focusing on historical documentation and formalistic analysis and, more recently, utilizing Orientalist theories and revisionist ideas. This interest. called the "Orientalist taste." or "Japanese taste (Japonisme)," is often viewed as a phenomenon created by Americans in search of a way to offset the spiritual void and loss of idealism felt in an age of industrialization, urbanization, and scientific positivism. Avoiding a Western-centered point of view, I locate my work in the context of the West's hegemonic attitudes towards East Asia and its appropriation of Asian culture and reevaluate this subject in light of race issues, as well as the cultural politics of the period.
This article proves that American interest in East Asia, in particular, Japan, was generated from more complicated motives and sources than previously thought. Here I utilize an interdisciplinary approach in order to examine American perceptions and attitudes, as well as Japanese reactions to America and Japan's role in formulating American views of East Asia. This study is based on my principal argument, that relations between the United States and Japan molded not only each country's image of the other but also American image of other Asian countries, such as Korea and China. Contemporaneous American sources indicate that American perceptions of Japan shifted from the "primitive" and heathen, to the exotic and romantic, and to the ideal and civilized, whereas those of China and Korea remained, more or less, the uncivilized or the half-civilized heathen.
American perspectives on East Asia as a racial and cultural other were based less on actuality than on misperceptions and fanciful information. This discussion includes widely-circulated studies of "scientific racism" by such thinkers as Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer and the application of their theories to Asians as well as Asian art, not only by Americans but also by the Japanese themselves. The perceiving subject and his or her needs determined how the object was perceived and how its nature was defined: Americans projected their prejudices onto Asia and disseminated their own illusionary image of Japan as an idyllic paradise. On the other hand, the perceived object can manipulate its presentation so as to affect its perception by the subject: The Japanese themselves, following govemment policy, played a crucial role in changing American's negative views of Japan to positive ones.
For example, the Meiji government's reaction against Westem expansionism and imperialism led to a nationalist policy to Westernize its social systems and to present Japan in the West as a civilized, ideal country where tradition and modemity co-existed harmoniously. Japan's strategic and meticulous planning involving international exhibitions, employment of foreign experts, commercialization of art and artifacts, and overseas activities of government employees and citizens worked brilliantly and was enormously successful. Some examples at Japanese exhibits unmistakably demonstrated Japan's political intent at the world's fairs and foreshadowed the upcoming political events in East Asia, including its territorial expansion onto Korea, China and Russia. Also, many of such ardent American popularizers of the Japan phenomenon as William Griffis and Ernest Fenollosa, were employed by the Japanese govemment. The swift change in American perceptions of Japan as a primitive, semi-barbaric, heathen society to a civilized nation with an ideal culture within the span of a couple of decades was due largely to this concerted effort by the Japanese. As a result, Americans repeatedly described Japan as almost equal to the Westerrn powers and superior to Korea, China, and Russia.
As American Japonisme became a national phenomenon, involving people of all classes and regions, Japanese art and culture became thoroughly integrated into American life. It became a symbol of refinement, sophistication, elegance, and harmony. However, the image of China was far less romanticized, as white Americans dealt far more frequently with actual Chinese people and they were seen as unstoppable hordes threatening the labor market. However, the American view of Japan shifted to the Yellow Peril after the Russo-Japanese War (1905) and the rapid increase of the Japanese immigrants. America's changing attitude towards East Asia indicates that its perception of the cultural and racial other reflects its developing political and economic relations with other societies.
This article proves that American interest in East Asia, in particular, Japan, was generated from more complicated motives and sources than previously thought. Here I utilize an interdisciplinary approach in order to examine American perceptions and attitudes, as well as Japanese reactions to America and Japan's role in formulating American views of East Asia. This study is based on my principal argument, that relations between the United States and Japan molded not only each country's image of the other but also American image of other Asian countries, such as Korea and China. Contemporaneous American sources indicate that American perceptions of Japan shifted from the "primitive" and heathen, to the exotic and romantic, and to the ideal and civilized, whereas those of China and Korea remained, more or less, the uncivilized or the half-civilized heathen.
American perspectives on East Asia as a racial and cultural other were based less on actuality than on misperceptions and fanciful information. This discussion includes widely-circulated studies of "scientific racism" by such thinkers as Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer and the application of their theories to Asians as well as Asian art, not only by Americans but also by the Japanese themselves. The perceiving subject and his or her needs determined how the object was perceived and how its nature was defined: Americans projected their prejudices onto Asia and disseminated their own illusionary image of Japan as an idyllic paradise. On the other hand, the perceived object can manipulate its presentation so as to affect its perception by the subject: The Japanese themselves, following govemment policy, played a crucial role in changing American's negative views of Japan to positive ones.
For example, the Meiji government's reaction against Westem expansionism and imperialism led to a nationalist policy to Westernize its social systems and to present Japan in the West as a civilized, ideal country where tradition and modemity co-existed harmoniously. Japan's strategic and meticulous planning involving international exhibitions, employment of foreign experts, commercialization of art and artifacts, and overseas activities of government employees and citizens worked brilliantly and was enormously successful. Some examples at Japanese exhibits unmistakably demonstrated Japan's political intent at the world's fairs and foreshadowed the upcoming political events in East Asia, including its territorial expansion onto Korea, China and Russia. Also, many of such ardent American popularizers of the Japan phenomenon as William Griffis and Ernest Fenollosa, were employed by the Japanese govemment. The swift change in American perceptions of Japan as a primitive, semi-barbaric, heathen society to a civilized nation with an ideal culture within the span of a couple of decades was due largely to this concerted effort by the Japanese. As a result, Americans repeatedly described Japan as almost equal to the Westerrn powers and superior to Korea, China, and Russia.
As American Japonisme became a national phenomenon, involving people of all classes and regions, Japanese art and culture became thoroughly integrated into American life. It became a symbol of refinement, sophistication, elegance, and harmony. However, the image of China was far less romanticized, as white Americans dealt far more frequently with actual Chinese people and they were seen as unstoppable hordes threatening the labor market. However, the American view of Japan shifted to the Yellow Peril after the Russo-Japanese War (1905) and the rapid increase of the Japanese immigrants. America's changing attitude towards East Asia indicates that its perception of the cultural and racial other reflects its developing political and economic relations with other societies.
목차
Ⅰ. 머리말: 미국과 동아시아의 문화교섭에 대한 諸 觀點
Ⅱ. 미국의 東洋觀 形成 및 變異要因으로서의 일본
Ⅲ. 동양예술에 대한 進化論的 解釋
Ⅳ. 전시장에서의 동아시아
Ⅴ. 맺음말
ABSTRACT
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UCI(KEPA) : I410-ECN-0101-2009-609-014718985